[45.The Effect of External Rewards on Behavior]
Psychologists take opposing views on how external rewards,
from warm praise to cold cash,
affect motivation and creativity.
Behaviorists,
who study the relation between actions and their consequences,
argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school.
Cognitive researchers,
who study various aspects of mental life,
maintain that rewards often destroy creativity
by encouraging dependence on approval and gifts from others.
The latter view has gained many supporters,
especially among educators.
But the careful use of small monetary rewards sparks creativity
in grade-school children, suggesting
that properly presented inducements indeed aid inventiveness,
according to a study in the June Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology.
"If kids know they're working for a reward
and can focus on a relatively challenging task,
they show the most creativity,"
says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark.
"But it's easy to kill creativity
by giving rewards for poor performance
or creating too much anticipation for rewards."
A teacher who continually draws attention to rewards
or who hands out high grades for ordinary achievement
ends up with uninspired students,
Eisenberger holds.
As an example of the latter point,
he notes growing efforts at major universities
to tighten grading standards and restore failing grades.
In earlier grades,
the use of so-called token economies,
in which students handle challenging problems
and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards,
shows promise in raising effort and creativity,
the Delaware psychologist claims.